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9. It is the duty of physicians who are involved in medical research to protect the life, health, dignity, integrity, right to self-determination, privacy, and confidentiality of personal information of research subjects. The responsibility for the protection of research subjects must always rest with the physician or other health care professionals and never with the research subjects, even though they have given consent.
21. Medical research involving human subjects must conform to generally accepted scientific principles, be based on a thorough knowledge of the scientific literature, other relevant sources of information, and adequate laboratory and, as appropriate, animal experimentation. The welfare of animals used for research must be respected.
The protocol should contain a statement of the ethical considerations involved and should indicate how the principles in this Declaration have been addressed. The protocol should include information regarding funding, sponsors, institutional affiliations, potential conflicts of interest, incentives for subjects and information regarding provisions for treating and/or compensating subjects who are harmed as a consequence of participation in the research study.
26. In medical research involving human subjects capable of giving informed consent, each potential subject must be adequately informed of the aims, methods, sources of funding, any possible conflicts of interest, institutional affiliations of the researcher, the anticipated benefits and potential risks of the study and the discomfort it may entail, post-study provisions and any other relevant aspects of the study. The potential subject must be informed of the right to refuse to participate in the study or to withdraw consent to participate at any time without reprisal. Special attention should be given to the specific information needs of individual potential subjects as well as to the methods used to deliver the information.
34. In advance of a clinical trial, sponsors, researchers and host country governments should make provisions for post-trial access for all participants who still need an intervention identified as beneficial in the trial. This information must also be disclosed to participants during the informed consent process.
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Many theoretical studies have shown how connections to more educated or affluent individuals can be valuable for transferring information, shaping aspirations and providing mentorship or job referrals15,30,31,38,39,40,41,42,43,44. Consistent with these models, empirical studies have documented that social ties to well-resourced individuals can materially affect economic and labour market outcomes3,4,5,45. Motivated by this literature, we begin by measuring connectedness across different types of people, focusing on economic connectedness: the extent to which people with low and high SES are friends with each other.
Second, it would be valuable to build on the methods developed here and construct analogous measures of social capital beyond the United States, either using social network data or other sources of network information such as financial transactions or mobile phone data84. Although many of the lessons obtained from our analysis of the United States are likely to generalize more broadly, international comparisons would enrich our understanding of social capital and its determinants.
Second, we estimate a gradient-boosted regression tree to predict these median household incomes using variables observed for all individuals in our sample, such as age, sex, language, relationship status, location information (ZIP code), college, donations, phone model price and mobile carrier, usage of Facebook on the Internet (rather than a mobile device), and other variables related to Facebook usage listed in Supplementary Table 4. We use this model to generate SES predictions for all individuals in our sample.
To identify friendships made in high school, we first use self-reports to assign individuals to schools. For people who do not report a high school, we use data on their friendship networks to impute those groups (see Supplementary Information A.3 for details). For the 3.3% of users who report multiple high schools, we select the school in which the user has the largest number of friends. This process produces information on high schools for 74.9% of individuals in our analysis sample. Finally, if an individual and one of their friends attended the same high school within three cohorts of each other, we identify them as high school friends.
Spectral homophily measures the extent to which a network is fragmented into separate groups, and relates to the speed of information aggregation in a network. A wide variety of algorithms can detect subcommunities89, and spectral homophily provides a simple measure of how strongly a network splits into such subcommunities. Formally, spectral homophily is the second largest eigenvalue of the degree-normalized (row-stochasticized) adjacency matrix \(\bfA^c_\bfs\in [0,1]^n\times n\). We measure spectral homophily in each county on the basis of the set of friendships among individuals in our primary sample living in that county. Friendship matrices are too sparse to estimate spectral homophily reliably at the ZIP code level. In the rare instances when there are fully isolated nodes within a county, we calculate spectral homophily on the largest connected component, which usually makes up the majority of users living in a county.
This project focuses on drawing high-level insights about communities and groups of people, rather than individuals. We used a server-side analysis script that was designed to automatically process the raw data, strip the data of personal identifiers, and generate aggregated results, which we analyzed to produce the conclusions in this paper. The script then promptly deleted the raw data generated for this project. While we used various publicly available sources of aggregate statistics to supplement our analysis, we do not link any external individual-level information to the Facebook data. All inferences made as part of this research were created and used solely for the purpose of this research and were not used by Meta for any other purpose. 2ff7e9595c
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